Evolution of Enabling Technologies That Paved the Way for Modern ICT

The primary factor that drives innovation is advances in platforms of technology. Big data analytics also has a role to play. Technology-enabled innovation comes in various forms. It can imply applying advanced analytics to enhance decision-making process, sing digital technological advancements with the aim of retooling manufacturing and also harnessing capabilities of mobile technologies to enhance marketing. Most cases of technological developments are based on the designing of platforms that bring positive impacts after having being leveraged several times (Skyler, 2009). They provide new solutions that are critical to the progress of society, such as energy efficient food production, better health services, and improvements in transport and communication industry. Organizations that invest in enabling technologies find it easy to advance their core capabilities and create vital mission-critical technologies.

The pace of technological innovations has created an evolution trend that will produce more efficient and better technology. The purpose of this paper is to investigate various enabling technology and their relevance to the American society. The paper will discuss enabling technology by looking at the Linux operating system, AT&T Labs, Open source software, the Free Software movement, and finally the embedded systems. Crops were planted in one place and encouraged its growth through weeding, fertilizing, irrigating and cultivating. Humans captured and also trained animals for materials and food and so they could also perform other tasks such as carrying loads and plowing. Advancement in information technology has had both positive and negative impacts around the globe. The United States of America has had several technological pacesetters who have continuously produced advancement and more sophisticated technologies to answer several challenges facing humanity.

Technological innovators such as Bill Gates, Steve Jobs, Michael Zuckerberg and many other innovators from America were driven by passion and desire to change the systems of humanity. Years after that, the computer used we're mainframe computers and business functions requiring computing revolved around the mainframe. The computer operators used minicomputers connected to the mainframe to execute business functions (Vainio & Vadén, 2012). The connection between the mainframe and the minicomputers (workstation) worked on the basis of master/slave relationship with the mainframe being the master, and the workstation minicomputers as the slaves. In 1971 at Intel Company a young engineer M. E. Communication has greatly transformed the American society from several perspectives. Apart from enhancing socialization, technological advancements have enabled the development of new cultures that continues to create employment.

Every massive change that humanity has experienced derives from a technological discovery related to communication. Operating Systems has made these changes user friendly by providing simple to use mechanisms that does not require computer skills to operate (Scott Frank, 2016). A series of technologies have followed language and writing thus enabling the changes of technologies in series such as printing, telephones, radio, TV, internet, and cell phones. The development of communication and information has improved rapidly in the 21st century. However, such developments have negative elements attached leading to the development of security features such as software to enable protection. Besides communication and manufacturing sector, the health sector has also benefited from enabling technologies. Most of today’s hot enterprise technologies revolve around free, “open-source” technology.

The impact can be seen in the manner that big organizations including giant retailers and financial institutions are developing their businesses on new community centered technology that presents a shift or change past Information Technology practices including projects that have spawned big organizations. The most widely used and poplar OS is the Windows, which is classified under a family of operating systems developed by Microsoft Corporation in 1985. The system employs a GUI- graphical user interface (GUI), whose role is to get rid of the need for a computer set to learn complicated commands. The GUI enables the user to command the OS by the use of a mouse to click icons displayed on the computer screen. The first Windows were released in 1985 and were designed as GUI add on for Microsoft Disc Operating System (MS-DOS) (Murikipudi et al.

Communicating with the computer required DOS users to feed commands through typing at command prompts, what followed was the command line interpreter’s execution for the issued commands. They had PowerPC hardware. Mac OS, OS X, latest version was first introduced in 2000. It could be applied in computers that had both PowerPC and Intel processors. Such a capacity gave it wider applicability and use. Regardless, Microsoft Windows still beats Mac OS. Linux is another achievement in the field of technology that has enabled several operations to be manageable. Linux is a variant of Unix running on different hardware platforms. It was created by a student named Linus from Helsinki Finland. Linus Torvalds developed the system as a hobby before releasing it under the GP-General Public License with source code freely available.

Currently, hundreds of organizations, individuals, and companies, have developed their version of OS based on Linus’ initial innovation of Linux kernel (Ward 2015). Regardless, their innovations have made working with computer and mobile devices more accessible. Computers are numerous and could be used by people from all walks of life regardless of their level of education, career, sex, or even prior experience. Such can be attributed to the development of enabling technologies to accompany technological evolution and making the process easy, cheap, and simple to use. The Linux operating system Background of Torvalds Linus Torvalds – the founder of Linux – is considered as one of the most successful computer scientists in the world. He was born on 28th December 1969 in Helsinki the Capital city of Finland and named after the famous Nobel Prize-winning American chemist Linus Paulin.

This processor, as opposed to previous versions, presented lots of improvement as Linus found it more appealing. However, as Vugt observes Linus was never satisfied with the MS-DOS operating system which it had. He decided to obtain a UNIX for this computer – a Unix-inspired operating system that had been established by Professor Andrew Tanenbaum for teaching UNIX to the university students. Unfortunately, Linux realized that it equally had numerous disadvantages. Linus then embarked on creating his own operating system based on both MINIX and UNIX. In the same year, Linux was adopted in the corporate world, a majority Microsoft competitor such as Oracle, Intel, Corel, and Netscape had started to adopt the use of Linux it for use in their internet serves and networks since they viewed it as a cheap alternative to Microsoft Windows.

The popularity of Linux rose further when Apache (a successful and free web server that hosts over 64 percent websites in the world) was written for Linux. A major adoption of Linux into the corporate world happened in 2001 when IBM committed a billion dollars for the promotion and further development of Linux even as IBM became the world’s main seller of both Linux and its related products and services (Vugt 2015). This has promoted Linux greatly. Presently, Linux and its related business surpass two billion dollars annually. This was a non-profit organization initiated with the aim of promoting open-source software, that is, computer programs that would be made readily available for free modification and sharing. The foundations headquarter is in Boston. Stallman volunteered fulltime as the president of this organization where he managed to other software components to be used by the GNU system.

Some of these components included the GNU Compiler Collector (GCC), the GNU Emacs as well as GNU symbolic debugger among other software. Stallman equally pioneered the concept of copyleft which is a license giving general permission to the researchers and the general public to reproduce and copy intellectual property. The main aim of the project was to give users the freedom to run the software, study and modify it and re distribute the modified versions among their peers as documented in GNU manifesto (Williams 2012). To safeguard the objectives of the project, Stallman ensured that all the users are granted freedom rights to access all utility programs including the operating system. The project is known to get its funding from donations and proceeds that come from its associate members.

Presently, the project is mainly concerned with software development activities and advocating for sharing of new information. GNU project is closely related to Linux and commonly referred to as GNU/Linux. Further, Linux has application spectrum which entails the use of embedded systems. The significance of Linux is grounded on the numerous benefits associated with it over other operating systems. Some of its significance include the fact that it is a virus-free software. That is, as opposed to Windows OS which has Active X through which viruses such as Worms, Spyware, and Trojans are developed, such a component does not fund in Linux making it more secure and stable Operating System. Besides, as opposed to Windows Operating Systems that require regular updates of Antivirus programs to keep it free from both hackers and Malware, Linux remains free from such threats.

The user will then be required to key in their password before pressing on the enter key once again (Ward 2015). Its Kernel entails a device driver with the capacity to support a number of PC hardware devices such as network cards, graphic cards as well as supporting various memory management features in addition to a number of file systems. The kernel equally regulates access to the various components of system hardware including CPU memory in addition to I/O devices. Linux System Hardware presentation according to Ward 2015). Linux also supports other command forms via its textual command-line shells and through its Graphical Interfaces (GUIs) which comes in handy when connecting a system to a server. Unfortunately, its small size makes it require a lot of setups for it to be able to operate.

According to McCarty, Dream Linux is another key Linux distributor, the distributor managed to be the slot of top 10rankings in the year 2008. Dream Linux comes with XFCE desktop environment. Other Linux distributors include Elementary OS, Arch Linux, and Fedora among others. AT & T Laboratories An Overview of AT&T Laboratories AT&T Bell Laboratories, Inc. Before the end of the 1920s, the research work had expanded enormously, forcing the management to split it from the parent organization. The new division of Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc. started operations on January 1, 1925. During the culmination of World War I in the 1930s, the company continued to grow. Taking advantage of plenty and cheap land in New Jersey, the company bought property there and established new research facilities, apart from the fact that radio tests could be undertaken without the disruption experienced in other facilities (Escribano, 2017).

Interestingly, 1970 was the year when most inventions were created. The dominance of Bell Labs started taking a sharp decline in 1984 when the authority determined that AT&T was the sole player and forced it to invest in other areas other than telephone operations. After divesting operations, new seven territorial “Baby Bells” were created. The modest division of Bell Labs whose research sustained home telephone research were spun off, followed by Bellcore. With Bell Labs at that moment managed by a more modest institution in the business of long-range telephone operations, its financial resources shrunk and the efforts in pure research were affected. The list represented below does not indicate any numerical order. The innovations below changed the globe based not on the seismic impact, but the sector affected.

The first achievement was data networking, they have been the only company able to send conventional political photographs since 1925. Such a mean feat was achieved because the Bell Labs created telephotography facsimile machines. Their work did not just end there because they have consistently tried to find new ways of using networks to convey more than only voice traffic. The award was given for their discovery of the transistor effect and the developments on semiconductors. The other colleague, William Shockley is not often spoken about, but he is credited with developing the junction transistor which could be easily manufactured. The third achievement is the greatest feature of the current world communication modes. The existing data network connects back to 1947 when Bell Laboratory physicists were the pioneers of the idea of a cellular network.

They visualized a network of small overlapping cell sites supported by a call switching infrastructure that could locate users as they navigated through a system and make their call from one location to another without losing the correspondence. Seven years later in 1962, Bell solar cells were used to power Telstar, which is considered the world’s first communication satellites. In 1956, a small-sized solar-powered radio was developed (Peter Bernstein, 2011). It operated continuously in daylight and ran 500 hours in darkness without recharging. The company is also credited with advancing the use of communication satellites. By the onset of 1962, President JF Kennedy was interested in fulfilling the ambitions of the scientific community of continually flying into space. Bell Labs in its background has possibly been the most proliferous software company regarding actual codes written and contributions.

Between 1969 and 1972, Bell Labs created the C programming and UNIX operating system, which were both joined by both impact and origin. UNIX did large-scale networking between different computer systems that involved both the internet and practical. Alternatively, C programming gave rise to an unusual collaboration of expressiveness and efficiency in programming by making computing more comfortable. Currently, UNIX is the preferred operating system of most prominent internet servers as well as universities and businesses. The reason for initiating such a project may have been forced by the iPhone launch, which significantly weakened AT&T wireless service. Immediately after that development, the company rolled out a $120 billion investment in its networks over that period, to enable it to catch up with the changing landscape.

The second notable project currently underway is SmartMic, which builds on the concept of conference apps. The innovation allows for users in big meetings to use their smartphones instead of microphones. With this application, the user raises his hand when a meeting jury opens up for audience discussions. AT&T developers are building an authentication procedure that relies on new reliable SIM cards to unlock data, and potentially even doors. Recall that Isis currently uses the same card technology. Such a technique would possibly be beneficial for work devices and would also help consumers who would wish to rely on their personal smartphones at work. The last project initiated in recent times is known as an Execucast project. The innovation works by ensuring that a user is able to livecast a web show with televisions by using Execucast.

Even as rapidly changing technology is invading the American workforce, AT&T has always been ahead by instilling new skills to its workforce. The company could not be a technological giant it is if it had not harnessed the talents and exerted patience with its researcher and engineers. Even in the face of failure of critical projects, they kept faith in their engineers, and more than 100 years later, the result is self-explanatory. Had the company decided to follow an authoritative path of dismissing engineers and researchers who did not immediately deliver, the technologies enjoyed right now could not have been developed. Explained earlier is the fact that AT&T Labs developed not all technologies, but the company has a hand in arguably most remarkable technological advancements.

Recall that the company went through numerous divisions over the years, and it could have taken the decision to venture into other sectors that do not foster modern technology. Instead, the splits made it expand its research to specific areas to ensure specialization is at its maximum. Each research labs built around the country had its own area of specialization. The future of modern technology is Artificial Intelligence. Therefore, AT&T Labs have to focus on this area. There are a number of open software applications used in various computer application areas such as web designing, office automation, operating systems, content management as well as communication. Even though the most open source software is available free of charge, they may still be sold at a given price while at the same time retaining their open source designation.

Besides, there are some indirect costs people may incur in adopting and managing the software commonly referred to as the total cost of ownership (Metzger 2016). As Metzger posits, they include the costs of software updates, the cost involved when switching from one software to another such as when moving from Microsoft Windows to Linux Operating System or the costs that may be incurred for training purposes especially in the instances where the organization does not have adequate expertise. Technicians may be then outsourced to give open source support and to help in managing its implementation process. GIMPShop • For editing image. Operates in the same way as Adobe Photoshop. Communication Pidgin • Is a free Instant Messaging (IM) software • It enables the use instant messaging accounts.

Thunderbird • Is an email and news platform Operating Systems All Linux software Fedora • A multipurpose Linux operating system that was developed by Fedora Project which is a community supported initiative and sponsored by Red Hat. Ubuntu • A Linux Operating System maintained by the community. However, there was an instance he wanted to adjust a printer driver for a laser printer that had a tendency to paper jam. Unfortunately, Xerox that had supplied the printer to MIT would not supply him with the copy of the source code. Consequently, he could not obtain that source code from a colleague since the colleague had signed a non-disclosure agreement with Xerox. From this experience, Stallman noted that non-disclosure agreements had victims. What worsened the situation further were the events of the early 80s that led to the closure of the lab.

Secondly, the software must give its users the freedom to modify it in a manner that suits their needs. This implied that the software source codes be made accessible since it is only through the source codes that such modifications are possible. Additionally, the software should also grant its users the freedom to re distribute copies either for a fee or free of charge. Similarly, the free software according to the Free Software Foundation had to give its users the freedom to distribute the modified versions of the program to everyone in the community so as to benefit from such modifications. As Stallman observes, with the passage of time a number of programmers using GNU started to rise and so he started to receive messages from them complaining about bugs in his source code with a majority another offering to help.

Also, the server provides dynamic pages through its programming language (PHP) that makes it the very popular choice for web servers. Other key factors that have equally promoted the open source software is Raymond’s 2001 publication titled, The Cathedral and the Bazaar which gave a reflective analysis of free software principles and hacker community. The article revealed various benefits associated with free software and how the free software principles could be used to the benefit of commercial-software industry. For instance, Raymond in the essay asserted that even though the Linux was conceived five years after Microsoft Windows, it is still considered a competitive alternative to Microsoft. On the contrary, Microsoft had spent millions of dollars and thousands of man-hours in trying to ensure that Windows NT is adequately developed without realizing significant success.

He indicated that he had thought of the term open source and that a majority of his friends had liked a lot. According to Raymond, on hearing the mention of ‘open source’ he knew they had found a winner. The group the proceeded to register the domain name as opensource. org and proceeded to create a list of licenses that met the criterion for open source certification. B Difference between open source software and other types of software. Proprietary software, on the other hand, refers to a software whose trustworthy advantages are associated with the copyright holder. This implies that as opposed to OSS whose creation and modification is communal, proprietary software is created by a firm or an individual who has all the privileges for modifying pre-existing tools or to come up with brand new.

The main characteristic of proprietary software as St (2004) indicates, proprietary software’s source code is kept independently and remains a mystery from the outside world. However, since the early 90s, there has been a clash between the open source software and proprietary software that has been combative. For instance, technology giants such as Microsoft and Oracle often view their open source alternatives as threats in the markets. When comparing OSS and proprietary software based on flexibility terms, it is established that open source software seems to allow more flexibility than the other types. This is because the accessibility of its source code allows for community created modifications to be fitted in and to select specific modifications that suit individual needs. On the other hand, proprietary software has limited functions depending on what its original programmer had intended.

Efforts to impose changes on it might void the warranty or pose other serious challenges to the user. Another different exists in terms of cost especially the costs involved in regular purchases and subscription charges. However, in regard to access to support system, other software including proprietary software takes the lead. Users should, therefore, access all the qualities associated with all the software types before settling on the one that is likely to meet their specific needs. The Free Software Movement The Free Software Movement is a movement that has the objective of creating transformations in the manner in which software is developed, maintained and released with an aim of creating an environment where the use and interactions of users and programmers is not restricted.

The movement was started in 1984 by Richard Stallman who was advocating for free flow of information for the benefit of the society (Reilly, 2008). He was not happy with proprietary software programs that could not share access codes. Stallman noted that the promotion of software that imposes no restrictions on the users would lead to technological development as it would ensure work is not duplicated with help of peer reviews and criticism. Restriction-free software champions hold that all the users of the software programs should have freedoms as outlined in their definition of free software. The privileges include; running the program for any purpose, adopting the software to the user’s needs, distribute copies of the program at will and freedom to modify or improve the program and also spread the revised version (Rappaport, 2017).

Many of the members of the movement held that it was immoral to prohibit and restrict people from accessing the source codes of a program. They believed that the freedom would create a society that is decent and enable software programmers and users assist each other and have a degree of control over their computers. The programs they developed were then distributed by the companies under proprietary license where end users would pay for using the programs (Vainio & Vadén, 2012). The users could not access the program source codes or inner workings. Stallman wanted a research free community where one could learn from the work of other researchers without restrictions. The other reason why Stallman championed for free software was that it could lead to better software programs that would serve the end users better.

It seems this objective has not been achieved since the proprietary software continues to outperform Linux. He wrote the initial version of the Linux program and made it available through the internet. It was freely accessible without any financial gain on his part and asked users to help improve the program (Elliott & Scacchi, 2008). There was a definite response to his call and Linux was greatly enhanced by a group of volunteer programmers across the world that made it better to serve users. A program that was not quite effective at the start was made free to users who were asked to help develop it; they became not only users but also co-producers. They helped pinpoint mistakes, problems and even corrected them sometimes and adding new functions that could enhance the software (Elliott & Scacchi, 2008).

In a case involving the refrigeration of the copyright licence of his program Busy box, he offered to assist the plaintiffs to comply with the GPL licensing requirements. The open source initiative would become one of the leading supporters of open and free source movement. The effort was successful in developing alternatives to the proprietary software that Richard Stallman and others strictly objected. Members of the public source have improved the code and write programs that are now capable of rivalling the already available proprietary software (Vainio & Vadén, 2012). The open source movement has also gone to include non-expert users and advocacy organisations that help to champion the free software movements. As Georgopoulou (2009) asserted, a world that does not think has no future and is only costing on its past achievements.

Making these thoughts a reality is the technical side of every profession. The freedom that Stallman championed is the freedom of the mind to create, which should not be restricted or hampered. However, there was no clear distinction between the freedom of the mind and the freedom of the products of the mind that he tried to champion. As critics pointed out, one is alive and must be let free to act; the other one is inert and must be controlled by the mind to be useful. It's freeing the work of others forms their control and granting the power to the free software movement members. That is like possessing the fruits of another person without their consent. They may opt not to produce those fruits at all (Calderaro, 2011).

The programmers’ contribution should be rewarded like a farmer who produces essential commodities like crops for food. The farmer does not give his/her produce for free. For that reason, the permit keeps duplicating itself like a computer virus. Such licensing terms could only be enforced through the assertion of copyrights. Critics of copyleft licensing argue that restricting license modification is in line with is in line free software movement freedoms. Alternatives such as BSD and Apache are more permissive. However, proponents enjoy the assurance that copyleft licensed software cannot be incorporated into non-free software (Calderaro, 2011). Abolition of copyright on software may be considered a win, but it will deny proprietaries the power to charge for software copies and copy leftists will have no ability to access modified source codes.

Proprietaries do not contribute much to code free software so there would be a significant loss for copy leftists. The proprietaries would, however, lose large sums of money and control. Ethical issues: Many programmers developing software that contain free access codes disagree on a moral point of view with the use of copyleft. In purely ethical grounds, one may differ with Stallman’s stand when he objects to the issue of copyright alone (Elliott & Scacchi, 2008). The other way to explain a system is the as a mode of organizing, running or performing tasks according to a fixed plan. Its modules adhere to laid protocols to indicate the time. In the case some of its units fail, all the subcomponents have to rely on each other (Kadionik, 2013).

Regarding embedded systems, the word itself means that something is connected to an additional object. Therefore, an embedded structure is a computer hardware system with software attached to it. The primary reason for the mass production of these systems is the benefit derived from economies of scale. In the early 1960s, Charles Stark Draper, working at the MIT Laboratory Instrumentation developed Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC). AGC is regarded the first embedded system and is an onboard digital computer installed on everybold Apollo spacecraft program, both Lunar Module (LM), and Command Module (CM). The system was written in AGC assembly language and provided onboard computation to support spacecraft guidance, control, and navigation. Apollo flight computer was also the first embedded system to use the Integrated Circuit (IC).

The expensive vehicles with driverless features rely on the adaptive cruise control by controlling the speed of a car by using the braking system while taking into account the distance between it and the car that is in front. The vehicles with this feature are fitted with RADAR to determine the length. All modern have airbags to make driving safer. The function of the airbag control system is to detect a collision using a car sensor and sends a directive to the ignition system to initiate inflation of the airbags (Kothari & Ebrary, Inc, 2011). The entire process from the onset to the end takes only a mere 0. All embedded systems are divided into different categories that help define their nature. The first category is Mandiri, also known as standalone.

A Mandiri device can function independently from other software or is not integrated with other devices. Standalone can also refer to software programs that do not require another software other than the operating system used to run it. Examples of appliances with such characteristic are TiVo box for recording TV broadcasts and the digital video recorder that integrates with DVD player. Real-time soft systems have fewer hard time constraints and do not support deadlines by using the period. An invention is considered to be actual time if it is miles vital to complete its work and supply its service on time. The real-time running system manages the software and furnishes a medium to allow the processor function. In most cases, an embedded system comprises system specific service inputs, input and output circuits, serial exchange ports, timers, processors, and power supply.

For embedded system software, it is decoded in a high degree format to carry out a selected feature. It has to run fast enough and process information in real time, has to be of a size that can fit into a single chip, and utilize less power to save the battery condition. An embedded system must also be microprocessors based and have a memory. The memory is critical as its processor usually implants in a ROM, without the need of alternative memories in the computer. Alternatively, it ought to be connected for the purpose of joining input and output devices. With their widespread use, embedded systems are known to have their advantages and disadvantages. Embedded systems in missiles and satellites under aerospace, conversation, and defense.

Also used in embedded structures in telecommunications consisting of mobile computing, wireless communication, and networking. The other application is in cars in motor control, cruise controls, frame safety, engine safety, automation and robotics, and automobile payments. Alternatively, embedded structures in virtual patron electronics in digital cameras, HD TVs, and semi-pinnacle boxes. The embedded systems economy is anticipated to grow at an average annual growth rate of 15% between now and 2030 (Castrillon, Sheng, & Leupers, 2011). The connection between the mainframe and the minicomputers (workstation) worked on the basis of master/slave relationship with the mainframe being the master, and the workstation minicomputers as the slaves. In 1971 at Intel Company a young engineer M. E. Hoff Jr invented the first microprocessor and changed the development of information technology history.

The 2300 transistor integrated circuit he developed was equal to the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer and paved the way for intelligence embedding in inanimate objects as well as personal computers. Communication was limited to family, clan, and community members. However, the changes in the environment and growing population led to the evolution of technology thus leading to the emergence of more sophisticated and advanced techniques for doing things. The many changes in productivity led to an uneven spread of food in some regions that were considered surplus for such reasons. Since the necessity is the mother of invention, cheap and rapid transportation systems developed to reduce spoilage of such foods. Additives, packaging, and refrigeration grew and were designed by human beings as a way of solving the issues of food spoilage.

It is also possible that technological innovation can be designed to completely perform new roles, independently from that which was designed by the creator. An example is that a computer was initially designed to perform a function other than entertainment, yet it is possible to conclude that many people buy a computer with the purpose of entrainment. Technology plays a critical role in the constitution of human identity and nature. Humans have for a long time shaped and extended themselves by virtue of artifacts and technical tools. Some of the contributors to the enhancement of enabling technology include Linus Torvalds, a successful computer scientist born in the Finish capital of Helsinki. The GNU project was a free operating system, free of constraints regarding the use of its source code.

The creation of the software boosted the creation and development of OSS. The role of human beings in the creation of enabling technologies is significant. Enthusiasm, passion, and the desire to maximize their potentials drove them to come up with systems that could be used by humans in several life aspects. The continuous evolution led to the creation of more sophisticated and easy to use devices that does not require special skill to operate. , Basta, N. , & Palladino, S. Linux operations and administration. Clifton Park, NY: Course Technology, Cengage Learning. Bossuet, L. caredit. a1400125 Calderaro, A. New Political Struggles in the Network Society: The Case of Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) Movement. SSRN Electronic Journal. http://dx. 6045483 Escribano, J. (2017, March 26). Review of The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation.

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